Detailing Product Life Cycles Essay Example for Free

Detailing Product Life Cycles Essay We may conclude that ISO 14001 has significant and direct profit and wealth creation potentials. Companies need effective management accounting systems to monitor all costs and benefits that accrue from the ISO 14001 process. Companies also need to market the consumer and social benefits of ISO 14001 effectively to targeted market segments for which environmental management matters. ISO 14001 and Seasonal Business Union Carbide’s Indian pesticides business, which caused the toxic cloud in Bhopal, was a highly seasonal business, with uncertainties regarding pest outbreaks and cropping patterns. The accident occurred in December, some 100 days after the peak demand for pesticides in that sub-tropical climate, with monsoon-dependant crop acreages. The worldwide tourism business is another example of high seasonal fluctuations in demand. Cyclical downturns are notorious for taking place when full complements of expert staff are not available, as outside normal working hours. Any operation with wide differences between times of peak demand and off-peak times, will inevitably respond by having fewer people available for watch and ward duties, at some times. Environmental Management Systems can never afford to slacken their vigilance, as all dangers and risks are not necessarily related with peak loads. ISO 14001 offers a reliable structure within which systems can operate to adequate standards even during times of low demand. The documentation support of ISO 14001 can prove to be invaluable in containing the emergent implications of any incident. The tourism industry benefits from ISO 14001, not only because of the off-season protection, but simultaneously because of the demand for eco-tourism and out of sustainability concerns for this large service sector. ISO 14001 is especially useful for any enterprise with high seasonality of demand. It helps organizations establish infrastructure that can maintain emergency response and environmental management capabilities at optimal costs during the lean seasons. It also helps companies to plan for peak demand in terms of environmental loads. These advantages are over and above the other benefits of the system that apply to all registrants. ISO 14001 and Building Projects The project nature of civil construction, and its high involvement with third party contractors, places a special challenge for ISO 14001. The growing demand for ‘green buildings. ’ is a special opportunity for the system. ISO is very well suited for the construction industry, and can help it meet new demands for sustainability. Much of the most lasting harm to the environment from modern industry arises from the materials, processes and designs of buildings and related civil structures. Asbestos abatement has been the focus of many environmental management standards of the building industry during the recent past. Asbestos exposure has occurred 3-4 decades earlier. This is a powerful reminder of the need for LCA in civil construction. The entire ISO 14001 system has a host of similar benefits for all stakeholders in the building industry. Architecture and ISO 14001 share a common emphasis on the design phase of projects, to avoid problems arising out of implementation. Hence, professionals in the construction business are especially amenable to the spirit of ISO 14001. The system has much to contribute by way of reducing material wastage in construction, and in reducing energy loads of actual use of buildings. ISO 14001 is eminently suited to meet the certification standards of the Green Building Council, and the specifications for Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) status. ISO 14001 has additional benefits with respect to protecting investors from a legal point of view in real estate transactions. The Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation and Liability Act (CERCLA), accompanies a number of state and local regulations that have major environmental implications. Any business in the construction or real estate business can benefit from ISO 14001, as they will have a sound system to choose projects with which they can be involved. They can also plan for full legal compliance as new laws take effect. ISO 14001 has powerful marketing potential for real estate developers. Investors and people on the market for buying homes would be inevitably attracted to projects that have sound environmental management systems in place. Buildings, neighborhoods and cities that make minimal imprints on the environment, that have track records of continual improvement and that make invaluable savings in maintenance resources, will always appreciate and attract communities. ISO 14001 has the potential to become mandatory for new real estate projects, particularly for ones in places that are rich in natural resources. ISO 14001 and Equator Principles Banks that subscribed to the Equator Principles have often found themselves in difficult situations, having to assess the environmental impacts of projects that for which they consider financing. Conflicting views from various stakeholders can be difficult for lenders to reconcile, as many aspects of the matter require local expertise and technological appreciation. ISO 14001 offers a solution for such matters, since it calls for a transparent and systematic assessment of chosen aspects, with a structured audit and review process. The Equator Principles could extend towards fields of transnational endeavor other than funding, and ISO 14001 can be a reliable and universal bridge for assessment and continual evaluation. The next decades will see a spurt in funded development projects in large tracts of the world. There is enormous pressure for large projects designed to bring succor to rural and urban communities. Funding will be mostly across geographical boundaries as capital resources are centered with countries other than the ones with the physical features for development. Investors and sources of public funds everywhere will face questions about environmental management, as they peruse candidate projects from distant locations. ISO 14001 is a good solution in these circumstances, for it provides a neutral and universal format in which all developers and governments can plan to manage the environmental impacts of the new projects that they conceive. International bodies can respond to social activists who claim that most development projects cause environmental harm, by asking project owners to use the transparency and accountability of the ISO 14000 series. SME Experience with ISO 14001 The vast majority of enterprises in most countries belong to the small and medium categories. ISO 14001 cannot be the force that it should, unless the system proves to be valid, useful and feasible for such organizations. A superficial look at ISO 14001 could lead most observers to conclude that it is too involved and expensive for any but the largest of corporations to afford. However, the reality is that ISO 14001 lends itself to adoption by even small and medium enterprises. An on-line survey of small and medium enterprises (those with fewer than 100 employees) with ISO 14001, displays pleasantly surprising results (International Organization for Standardization, 2005). Pressures to comply with environmental regulations, demands from corporate customers that are higher up in the supply chain and lucrative opportunities in foreign markets, are the three most important stimulants for small and medium enterprises (SMEs) to seek the business advantages of ISO 14001. Many SMEs lose out because they do not seek ISO 14001 certifications, either out of ignorance, or because of wrong impressions they hold of the resources required. There is a clear need to make the system’s benefits more widely known and more accurately appreciated. Many SME owners incorrectly believe that pollution is an exclusive preserve of large corporations! The significant negative contributions of SMEs to environmental management are often ignored, especially if units are scattered and relatively isolated. Many SMEs stay away from ISO 14001 as they are not aware of government and institutional support available for them to secure certification within their means. Some consultants confound the issue by outlying more paperwork and bureaucracy than is necessary for the sizes of some potential clients. SMEs also have the choice to build their EMSs on alternative systems that compete with ISO 14001. It would appear overall that ISO 14001 has a great deal of unused potential with respect to EMSs for SMEs. This is a marketing challenge for country organizations of the ISO body. SMEs can be very wasteful of material and energy, albeit on a relatively small scale. They may not be immediately aware of wastes they generate, but this has a cumulative effect that has to be addressed at some stage. Pest Control Operators and Applicators are classic examples of small enterprises that deal with highly toxic chemicals. The latter can affect wide areas and large communities. All SMEs everywhere can use ISO 14001 to fight competition from better resourced corporations, by using effective EMSs. The move to terminate enterprises that have no controls on the pollution they cause and the hazards inherent in their operations, is current already. Growth is a natural evolution even for SMEs. ISO 14001, apart from protecting business interests as described above, also has the power to afford rapid growth for SMEs. The Internet enables local companies to achieve global reach. ISO 14001 can help them match their new found logistical strengths with EMSs that work. Any SME with growth ambitions has to use ISO 14001 as essential infrastructure for its future plans. Summary of Benefits of Environmental Management Systems Environmental management standards help companies to build their transactions across territorial boundaries. It is likely to become a sort of pre-requisite for global corporations. Emerging economies must develop expertise in environmental management to fight non-tariff barriers to markets in advanced economies. It is an integral part of the branding process. Environmental management systems help companies and organizations respond to important concerns of their main stakeholders. It is therefore a matter of priority for most entities in the conventional world. Companies from all sectors of the economy have become aware of the pressing need to conserve precious natural resources (Case Studies, 2002). ISO 14001 has enabled companies such as Apple stay abreast of changing regulation on environmental matters. The company was able to eliminate lead from batteries, and later to substitute Nickel-Cadmium batteries in line with European Union directives. These are concrete examples of how ISO 14001 helps companies stay in business by conforming in time to new and higher environmental protection standards. Apple’s switch to lithium ion batteries is an example of how ISO 14001 can squeeze additional ingenuity out of the industrial sector. Progressive companies such as Apple Computers buy products and services from companies that demonstrate effective commitment to environmental conservation (Case Studies, 2002). Supply chain considerations make ISO 14001 essential for the suppliers of major corporations. The proponents of ISO 14001 started by show-casing the benefits of the discipline in terms of the ethics of environmental concerns. The world has moved on since then, and ISO 14001 is no longer an option chosen by those with surplus cash. ISO 14001 has become a vital visa that provides contemporary corporations with the rights to continue business in the 21st century. The days of firms that do not meet ISO 14001 standards, are numbered. Savings in energy bills provide financial succor to firms that invest in reducing power consumption. This is a good example of the meeting point between the financial and non-financial advantages of environmental management systems. ISO 14001 is voluntary and flexible. It does not enforce any external standards. Companies can tailor their individual EMSs to the nature of their enterprise, and to the levels of expertise they have achieved in environmental management. It is a stable framework for the conduct of modern business that will appeal to professionals, and it is an effective way of extracting new efficiencies out of matured business processes. What Is It? The International Standards Organization, with its impressive name, has given ISO 14000 impressive credentials. The success of the ISO 9000 series in promoting quality consciousness has created high expectations in terms of the 14000 series enjoying similar success on the environmental front. However, many people are still not aware of the precise nature and scope of ISO 14000. The ISO 14000 series started in 1991: the first standards were published in 1996. It is therefore less well known and understood than the 9000 series which have been used for longer. The ISO 14000 series helps organizations meet environmental issues (Hanson, A. J. not dated). It is a documentation system that sets out objectives with priorities, divides responsibilities amongst a team, and provides for independent audit. It is important to bear in mind that ISO 14000 is not a single system, but rather a series of international standards (Environmental Management Guide 2004). ISO 14001 helps organizations to implement EMS, to ensure conformance to standards, to ensure compliance with relevant regulation and to seek independent certification (Environmental Management Guide 2004). Any organization that uses ISO 14001 disciplines will be better equipped to deal with the challenges of environmental management. ISO 14001 is one unit of the ISO 14000 series. ISO 14000 is a voluntary system-business houses and organization have rights to decide on whether or not they would like to invest in it. It has a pervasive influence, and calls for serious commitment of time and money. The decision to use ISO 14000 is therefore strategic by nature. Though community and key customer pressures can often be motivating factors, some organizations opt for ISO certification out of genuine concern for the environment. ISO 14000 recognizes environmental conservation as an integral part of organizational process, on par with more traditional functions such as Finance, Personnel and so on. The system must integrate with the total company organization and structure, if it is to yield meaningful and lasting benefits. Most companies start their ISO 14000 experiences with the help of experienced consultants, but that does not preclude deployment of significant human resources from an organization’s own pool. ISO 14000 has three major sections: life cycle analysis, environmental performance evaluation and labeling (Hanson, A. J. not dated). ISO 14001 in the series is concerned with environmental management systems. Organizations should plan to deploy the full ISO 14000 series over time, though they may start with ISO 14001 for reasons of resource constraints, to obtain the benefits of focus, and to give time to their employees to adjust to the new way of working. The ISO 14000 series is a guide that almost every organization can adapt to its specific needs. The system is very flexible in terms of fitting in to various sets of circumstances. Companies that work for profit have used ISO 14000 more widely than social organizations and government bodies. Firms from diverse segments of industry and even the services have all used ISO 14000 with equally remarkable success. However, the ISO system is not a packaged solution by itself. It is up to each registrant to use the system to its advantage. ISO promotes a new culture of professionalism. The documentation and procedures that the system enjoins on its followers, enforces a systematic approach to issues. It also promotes transparency, and ensures that organizations can respond in uniform manner, with low dependence on individual whims. It is especially useful to deal with emergent situations, and in ones in which a large number of variables require simultaneous consideration. Employees of an ISO 14000 certified organization display new confidence about their responsibilities and can do a more complete job of conserving the environment. ISO 14001 is a new template for modern business. It acknowledges the ubiquitous role of the environment in our lives, and provides paths to sustainable compromises that technology and conventional issues can negotiate with our natural surroundings. The ISO 14000 series can give a new lease of life to a business that is under attack because of the hazards and toxicity that it entails. It can help a small business rival a large corporation in terms of professional standards. It can help organizations perform uniformly across geographical and cultural boundaries. ISO 14000 is truly the way of the 21st century. There are concrete profits to be earned from the ISO 14000 series. The system is relentless in searching for ways to reduce consumption per unit of output, and ways to reuse or recycle waste and by products. Certification brings access to new markets and strengthens a company’s competitive position. There are therefore classic business reasons for using the ISO 14000 system. Environmental Labeling and ISO 14000 Some manufacturers have used the absence of regulations to prepare labels with unsubstantiated ecological claims on labels (Hanson, A. J. not dated). Consumers who would like to support manufacturers of environmentally sound products are hampered by the proliferation of labels that make vague and even incorrect claims about environmental impacts. Environmental labeling under the ISO 14000 series, corrects this anomaly. This is an important reason for business houses to support ISO 14000. The world is on a move towards the regulation of labeling standards, and companies that do not follow ISO 14000 may soon find themselves excluded from key markets. Three levels of labeling standards are available for manufacturers who would like to use the ISO 14000 system for their products. Most consumers are accustomed to Type 1 Environmental Labels. The latter provide criteria against which each covered product is measured. Canada and Germany have adopted these standards. Type II labels will use uniform terms and definitions: standards and details will be available in due course. Type III labels seek to provide information along a set of pre-determined criteria. Such labels are already in use for some nutritional products. Environmental labeling predisposes companies to resort to Life Cycle Analysis. The number of products with environmentally sound labels has grown exponentially since the 1990s (Hanson, A. J. not dated). There were less than 25 such products in the United States in 1989. The number grew to 600 by 1990. It is now a business that exceeds $10 billion. The stage is set for economies in all countries to move over to products and services that can make valid claims about environmental management on their labels. The ISO 14000 deals with environmental management on the basis of the following main principles (Hanson, A. J. not dated): â€Å"Labeling should be accurate, verifiable, relevant and should be non-deceptive. †¢ The party that makes the label should make relevant information about the attributes available to purchasers †¢ Labeling should be based on comprehensive scientific methods that are reproducible †¢ Information on the process and methodologies should be available to all interested parties †¢ Labeling should incorporate where appropriate the life cycle of the product or service †¢ Administrative requirements should not make participation difficult †¢ Labels should not create unfair trade restrictions †¢ Labeling should not inhibit innovation that may improve environmental performance. †¢ Labeling criteria should be developed by consensus† Environment labeling programs are democratic in nature. Producers can decide to comply of their own volition. Any manufacturer can decide to use the system, regardless of nature, size and location. It therefore gives an opportunity for new industrial entities to seek competitive advantage against entrenched brands. The greater interests of consumers always have over-riding priority. There are four methods available for verification of claims made on environmental labels. These are: â€Å"Declaration of conformity: the manufacturer self-declares conformance †¢ Review of supporting documentation: the practitioner requires the applicant to provide documentary evidence of conformity †¢ Evaluation of conformity with manufacturing phase requirements: where the production phase is evaluated †¢ Product testing: samples of the product are tested (Hanson, A. J. not dated). Companies have to establish monitoring systems to ensure on-going compliance once their label claims have been verified. Environmental labeling is an important development in terms of improving environmental accountability of modern business. It is an integral part of the ISO 14000 process. It is also in the best interests of companies as it costs less than invasive regulation. Since awareness about environmental matters is growing, environmental labeling can improve market share. Products with comprehensive information about environmental impacts on their labels will perform better in highly competitive situations. There is the analogy of air emissions as a buying benefit in the case of automobiles. Clothing made from organic fiber, food free of harmful residues, cosmetics that do not use animal testing, durables that consumers can return to manufacturers for recycling and instructions on how to use dangerous products without causing harm, are all live examples of some of the most successful branding that has been achieved through environmental labeling. This portion of the ISO 14000 package is instrumental in building unbreakable bonds between brand owners and customers, and in improving customer satisfaction. It is therefore a pivotal strategy for profitable and sustainable business growth. ISO 14001 for International Corporations Since environmental standards and concern vary by country, international corporations face dilemmas with respect to environmental management systems. Most of these companies are headquartered and controlled in the first world, though their products, services and operations cover far corners of the globe. Such companies used to follow territory-specific environmental management systems in the past. This has some technical validity, as natural resources, climate and social habits can place such different demands on business. However, social activists have begun to question the ethics of double standards. International companies have become accountable for following uniform policies and standards wherever they may operate. This can be quite confusing as regulatory requirements are not uniform throughout the world. ISO 14001 offers a path out of these contradictions. Group Managements can influence policy statements and control systems, leaving affiliates and subsidiaries to identify aspects, programs and specifications. Audits and reviews provide a uniform basis for transnational comparisons. Certification is a strong defense against unsubstantiated attacks by social activists. Overall, ISO 14001 offers value to organizations that need to harmonize international and local components of environmental management systems. The portability of human resources is a key consideration for international companies. Assignments and transfers to new locations are established means of career development. New perspectives of individuals from exotic markets, often inject new dynamism in to stagnating business sectors. Periodic changes in fitment for key positions ensure transparency and integrity of linkages between companies and its independent suppliers and contractors. There are therefore a host of reasons for international companies to move personnel between countries, markets and sectors. However, continuity of important business processes becomes a concern, as new people occupy crucial positions at various points of the organization. The accumulated learning of an individual, as well as the rationale for pivotal decisions, has to be available for a new incumbent. The environmental aspects of management situations can be too important and irreversible in nature for companies to depend on word-of-mouth spread between colleagues about the reasons for how operations are conducted. Casual or experimental changes in processes based on theoretical concepts, or based on notions from irrelevant past experience, can be devastating in environmental terms. The ISO 14001 system plays a most helpful role in such matters. Versions of the manual built up over time serve as invaluable references in managing the evolution of all business processes. Records of management reviews lend authenticity to how things are done in each function and location. Since ISO 14001 is an on-going process, it also allows adequate scope for new incumbents in local organizations to express themselves fully, and to expound their ideas for business improvement. The ISO 14000 series is therefore an enabling network for large and inter-changeable teams of professionals to work in a seamless way. Environmental concerns are important for modern branding and new product development processes. Though branding and new product development should be globally uniform for the best returns on investment, environmental aspects can vary across countries, and even within segments of domestic markets. There can therefore be an inherent conflict between marketing and environmental concerns. The ISO 14001 system offers a way to resolve such conflicts. The policy statement serves to establish universal ground rules within which innovation can be encouraged. The choice of environmental aspects that are chosen for address in individual countries can be adapted to meet local requirements. ISO 14001 helps to define the boundaries between local and global environmental management concerns related to brands and new product development. Group managements of international corporations have to make choices between territories and industrial sectors for resource allocation, especially in terms of financial deployment. Since most projects have long gestation periods, and may involve very substantial commitments, managers at one central location can always have difficulties in making choices between alternatives at more than one remote location. Local environmental concerns tend to be in flux and there are often crucial differences between the regulatory conditions related to environmental management systems of various countries. Group managements may have to take important decisions in the face of incomplete and uncertain background information. Countries with less transparent and elaborate environmental regulations may either fall by the wayside in investment choices, or at the other extreme, attract funds for new projects without due consideration for the risks involved. ISO 14001 makes it possible to compare opportunities and threats across nations in a fair and even way. Records of progressive audits provide a firm and equal basis to take decisions on the future of operations in various territories. This is apart from serving as a common platform for the evaluation of business performance. Social activism tends to concentrate on large international corporations. Environmental degradation due to poverty, ignorance and by SMEs is often overlooked by non-governmental organizations. Such attacks can occupy limited management time and lead to intractable and unproductive negotiations. An ISO 14001 certification is an effective safeguard in such circumstances. It provides a harmonious platform for divergent views to be addressed, and a participatory format for conflict resolution. Records of management reviews can form crucial evidence in defense of executive action and environmental responsibility. The advantages of the ISO 14000 system for large international corporations are so obvious and pervasive, that one can conclude that all such organizations do have EMSs in place, though they may not always seek certification. It is difficult to conceive of a body conducting business in a sustained way across the globe without any systems for environmental management. The external audit and public scrutiny of the ISO 14000 series is what most management teams would want to avoid. It is possible to conclude that most if not all large international corporations follow ISO 14000 systems in some form, though they may not find it expedient to join the organization in a formal sense. ISO 14001 in Mergers and Acquisitions. Differences in environmental management systems can confound and delay mergers and acquisitions. Potential buyers may be put off by uncertainties about product liability. Due diligence can be affected by paucity of documentation, and by contradictory verbal feedback from employees and other stakeholders. The entire ISO 14000 series is a way out of such problems. ISO processes serve to assure all parties about the integrity of environmental impact assessments, while successive editions of the manual and audit reports put achievements and progress in valid and measured perspectives. Companies that follow ISO 14001 will find it relatively easy to continue business normally very soon after a merger or an acquisition. There could be major disruptions or unpleasant surprises if an inter-corporate transaction involves an unregistered entity. ISO 14001 also protects minority and dissenting interests in mergers and acquisitions. Stock market regulators are well advised to insist on ISO registration as a pre-condition to equity restructuring. The case of batteries illustrates how tangential product components can have significant impact on the core strategies of a business. Computers use batteries inevitably, but the technology of their production lies outside the domain of electronics and software. However, ecological concerns about the use of heavy metals such as lead, nickel and cadmium in batteries, and the relatively high rate of product obsolescence in computers, has forced companies in this field to acquire expertise in technologies such as that of lithium ions, and to find sources for commercial supplies of ecologically sound batteries. Computer companies have also to divert major resources to recycling programs that are integral to their products, but the matter of batteries illustrates the inter-related complications that can be part of doing business in the 21st century. This aspect gives Life Cycle Analysis great value, as it is a systematic way to cover all known environmental impacts that arise as a result of any enterprise. Life Cycle Analysis (LCA) seeks to cover all sources of burdens on the environment that the production of a product may entail (Hanson, A.J. not dated). The system covers the consumption of all materials, use of energy in all forms, production processes, supply chains, logistics, waste disposal and recycling. LCA adopts an integrated approach to environmental management, and it works in four stages. Initiation, inventory analysis, impact analysis and interpretation are the four stages of LCA. Interpretation is also called improvement analysis. LCA is a vital part of the ISO 14000 system, and it has universal application for all fields of human endeavor. LCA has most utility when designing new products, but the technique can also be used to reduce the environmental burden of an existing product. Substitutes may compete on the basis of LCA facts, as is the case of disposable diapers versus washable ones. Such comparisons engage healthy debate and help to build indelible opinions about environmental conservation. LCA is integrative and holistic in its approach to environmental concerns. It is especially useful in uncovering hidden risks and costs that may associate in covert manner with some products and services. LCA proceeds in a step-wise manner, toting up the material and energy requirements of each component of a production process, and then presenting a total picture of the environmental impact of each product or service that is covered. LCA considers waste generations and impacts on air and water at each stage of procurement and production. It also considers distribution and actual use. The ISO 14001 process cannot be complete without full LCA. The Canadian Standards Association has stated LCA benefits in the follo.

Analysis of variance models

Analysis of variance models Abstract: Analysis of variance (ANOVA) models has become widely used tool and plays a fundamental role in much of the application of statistics today. Two-way ANOVA models involving random effects have found widespread application to experimental design in varied fields such as biology, econometrics, quality control, and engineering. The article is comprehensive presentation of methods and techniques for point estimation, interval estimation, estimation of variance components, and hypotheses tests for Two-Way Analysis of Variance with random effects. Key words: Analysis of variance; two-way classification; variance components; random effects model 1. Introduction The random effects model is not fraught with questions about assumptions as is the mixed effects model. Concerns have been expressed over the reasonableness of assuming that the interaction term abij is tossed into the model independently of ai and bj . However, uncorrelatedness, which with normality becomes independence, does seem to emerge from finite sampling models that define the interaction to be a function of the main A and B effects. The problem usually of interest is to estimate the components of variance. The model (1) is referred to as a cross-classification model. A slightly different and equally important model is the nested model. For this latter model see (5) and the related discussion. 2. Estimation of variance components The standard method of moments estimators for a balanced design(i.e., = n ) are based on the expected mean squares for the sums of nij squares. The credentials of the estimators (4) are that they are uniform minimum variance unbiased estimators (UMVUE) under normal theory, and uniform minimum variance quadratic unbiased estimators (UMVQUE) in general. They do, however, suffer the embarrassment of sometimes being negative, except for .e which is always positive. The actual maximum likelihood estimators would occur on a boundary rather than being negative. The best way is to always adjust an estimate to zero rather than report a negative value. It should certainly be possible to construct improved estimators along the lines of the Klotz-Milton-Zacks estimators used in the one-way classification. However, the details on these estimators have not been worked out by anyone for the two-way classification. Estimating variance components from unbalanced data is not as straight-forward as from balanced data. This is so for two reasons. First, several methods of estimation are available (most of which reduce to the analysis of variance method for balanced data), but no one of them has yet been clearly established as superior to the others. Second, all the methods involve relatively cumbersome algebra; discussion of unbalanced data can therefore easily deteriorate into a welter of symbols, a situation we do our best (perhaps not successfully) to minimize here1. On the other hand, extremely unbalanced designs are a horror story. A number of different methods have been proposed for handling them, but all involve extensive algebraic manipulations. The technical detail required to carry out these analyses exceeds the limitations set for this article. On occasion factors A and B are such that it makes no sense to postulate the existence of interactions, so the terms abij should be dropped from (1). In this case .ab disappears from (3) and the estimators for .a and 1 Djordjevic V., Lepojevic V., Henderson?s approach to Variance Components estimation for unbalanced data, Facta Universitatis, Vol.2 No.1, 2004. pg. 59 Another variation on the model (1) gives rise to the nested model. In general, the nested model for components of variance problems occur more frequently in practice than does the cross-classification model. In the nested model the main effects for one factor, say, B, are missing in (1). The reason is that the entities creating the different levels of factor B are not the same for different levels of factor A. For example, the levels (subscript i ) of factor A might represent different litters, and the levels (subscript j) of factor B might be different animals, which are a different set for each litter. The additional subscript k might denote repeated measurements on each animal. To be specific, the formal model for the nested design is: and independence between the different lettered variables. It is customary with this model to use the symbol b rather than ab because the interpretation for this term has changed from synergism or interaction to one of a main effect nested inside another main effect. For a balanced design the method of moments estimators are based on the sums of squares: which have degrees of freedom I-1, I (J-1), and IJ(n-1) , respectively. The mean squares corresponding to (7) have the expectations: The increasing tier phenomenon exhibited in (8) holds for nested designs with more than two effects. The only complication arises when one or more of the estimates are negative. This is an indication that the corresponding variance components are zero or negligible. One might want to resent any negative estimates to zero, combine the adjacent sums of squares, and subtract the combined mean squares from the mean squares higher in the tier. Extension of these ideas to the unbalanced design does not represent as formidable a task for the nested design as it does for the crossed design. The sums of squares (7), appropriately modified for unbalanced designs, form the basis for the analysis. It is even possible to allow for varying numbers Ji of factor B for different levels of factor A. 3. Tests for variance components The appropriate test statistics for various hypothesis of interest can be determined by examining the expected mean squares in the table of analysis of variance. However, we encounter the difficulty that even under the normality assumption exact F tests may not be available for some of the   An analogous F statistic provides a test for H0:.b 2 =0 . Under the alternative no null hypotheses, these ratios are distributed as the appropriate ratios of multiplicative constants from (10) times central F random variables. Thus power calculations are made from central F tables for fixed effects models. The F tests of H :.2 =0 and H :.2 =0 mentioned in the 0 ab 0 a preceding paragraph are uniformly most powerful similar tests. However, they are not likelihood ratio tests, which are more complicated because of boundaries to the parameter space. Although their general use is not recommended because of their extreme sensitivity to no normality, confidence intervals can be constructed based on the distribution theory 10. The complicated method of Bulmer (1957), which is described in Scheffe [11 pg. 27-28], is available. However, the approximate method of Satterhwaite [10 pg. 110-114] may produce just as good results. The distribution theory for the sums of squares (7) used in conjunction with nested designs is straightforward and simple. To test the hypothesis H0:.b2 =0 one uses the F ratio MS (B)/MS(E), and to test H0:.a 2 =0 the appropriate ratio is MS (A)/MS (B). In all nested designs the higher line in the tier is always tested against the next lower line. If a conclusion is reached that .b2 =0 , then the test of H0:.a2 =0 could be improved by combining SS (B) and SS(E) to form a denominator sum of squares with I(J-1) + I J (n-1) degrees of freedom. Under alternative hypotheses these F ratios are distributed as central F ratios multiplied by the appropriate ratio of variances. This can be exploited to produce confidence intervals on some variance ratios. However, one still needs to rely on the approximate Satterhwaite [10 pg. 110-114] approach for constructing intervals on individual components. 4. Estimations of individual effects and overall mean For the two-way crossed classification with random effects interest The classical approach would be to use the estimates ?^ij = yij. The idea would be to shrink the individual estimates toward the common mean as in. where the shrinking factor S depends on the sums of squares SS (E), SS (AB), SS(B), and SS(A) . Unfortunately, the specific details on the construction of an appropriate S have not been worked out for the two-way classification as they have been for the one-way classification. Alternatively, attention might center on estimating a1,, aI , or, equivalently, on the levels of factor B. Again, specific estimators have not been proposed to date for handling this situation. In the nested design one sometimes wants an estimate and confidence interval for ?. One typically uses ?^= y . In the balanced case this estimator has variance. This can be estimated by MS (A)/I J n. In the unbalanced case an estimate for the variability of y can be obtained by substituting estimates .^2, .^b2 and 2 into the expression for the variance of y . Alternative estimators using different weights may be worth considering in the unbalanced case. 5. Conclusion Analysis of variance (ANOVA) models have become widely used tools and play a fundamental role in much of the application of statistics today. In particular, ANOVA models involving random effects have found widespread application to experimental design in a variety of fields requiring Two-Way Analysis of Variance for Random Models measurements of variance, including agriculture, biology, animal breeding, applied genetics, econometrics, quality control, medicine, engineering, and social sciences. With a two-way classification there are two distinct factors affecting the observed responses. Each factor is investigated at a variety of different levels in an experiment, and the combination of the two factors at different levels form a cross-classification. In a two-way classification each factor can be either fixed or random. If both factors are random, the model is called a random effects model. Various estimators of variance components in the two-way crossed classification random effects model with one observation per cell are compared under the standard assumptions of normality and independence of the random effects. Mean squared error is used as the measure of performance. The estimators being compared are: the minimum variance unbiased, the restricted maximum likelihood, and several modifications of the unbiased and the restricted maximum likelihood estimators.

Ballard Fuel Cell :: essays research papers

THE BALLARD FUEL CELL The Ballard fuel cell is a power generating device which combines hydrogen (which can be obtained from methanol, natural gas, petroleum) and oxygen without the use of combustion in order to generate electricity. Since fuel cells operate very quietly and efficiently and their only emissions are pure water and heat they are expected to be the future of power generating machines. The PEM fuel cell is made of two plates with a plastic membrane coated with a catalyst in the middle. Hydrogen is then fed through the channels on one side of the plates and oxygen is fed through the other side. The hydrogen and oxygen atoms are drawn toward each other. Only one part of the hydrogen atom – the proton – can pass through the membrane. The electron has to take the long way around through an external circuit. This creates electricity. The oxygen side attracts protons and electrons that have traveled through the external circuit. This is where the byproducts water and heat are formed. Each fuel cell operates continuously as long as hydrogen is supplied. Single cells are combined to produce the required amount of power. PEM fuel cells operate at around 90 degrees Celsius and give off 90 degrees Celsius of heat, which is a fairly low temperature. This is much better than high temperature combustion engines, which operate at about 2500 degrees Celsius and give off 125 degrees Celsius of heat. This means the Ballard fuel cell can react quickly to load changes and makes it ideal for motor vehicles. Which is why Honda, Nissan, Volkswagen Yamaha, Daimler Chrysler and Ford have commercialized the use of these cells. The cities of Vancouver and Chicago are currently testing Ballard’s fuel cell transit buses. They are seeing the maintenance requirements of the pollution free buses as well as the public reaction to the program.

Defense for Booker T. Washington :: Up From Slavery African Americans Essays

Defense for Booker T. Washington Booker T. Washington is innocent of sycophancy and complacency. The meaning of sycophancy, as we know it, is a self serving flatterer. By far, I do not think that Mr. Washington is one of these. Mr. Washington’s second charge, complacency, according to the online dictionary of Merriam – Webster means, self-satisfaction accompanied by unawareness of actual dangers or deficiencies. Again, this is far from what Booker T. Washington is guilty of, in fact, Mr. Washington is gravely misunderstood and it is the people’s point of view that has to change to prove this man’s innocence. In his autobiography, â€Å"Up From Slavery† Washington describes his life as a slave and rising above poverty and oppression. His reason for this autobiography was to tell the world that he too suffered abuse, oppression, poverty and belittlement. He shows that he was able to sacrifice and suffer to get to where he accelerated to be a prominent educator. His purpose of this book was to educate others of his own race. Washington grew up in the South. Southern baptism was the dominant religion. People were having the calling to be ministers in every congregation. Having all of this religion around you instills attitudes of guidance from the bible. I feel that Booker T. Washington was heavily influenced by the bible whether he knew it or not. It states in the bible, â€Å"turn the other cheek, forgive one another and seek treasures of comfort from heaven, when someone is mean to you be kind to them and coals of fire will burn on their heads.† We have all heard these phrases throughout our life time. Could these ideologies be in stowed in Booker T. Washington’s mind set? Of course, it was. This is why Mr. Washington sees that forgiving the white race and to move on is justified. He’s trying to help his own race by trying to take away the hate and vengeful feelings towards the white race so that his own race is clear to move forward and eventually perhaps become equal. The fi rst step in mental health to move forward is to forgive and forget the past. This was one of the ideologies Washington was trying to promote. Washington believed that education was an important tool for moving up the social and financial ladder.

Physical Inactivity Essay -- Health, Ageing, Nursing Home

Introduction and purpose Ageing is a common process in life. With ageing, functional capabilities deteriorate and lead to major risk in health. So for older people, keeping them physically active is an important role in their healthy ageing. This will help them to maintain their independence and value their life as long as they live. Engaging in physical activity will reduce the risk of chronic conditions and improve the state of mind and well being. Being physically active by participating in regular physical activities has a major health advantage which has been well documented. Despite the advantage of day to day physical activity a large number of older people go ahead with their inactive way of life. This study was conducted in older people who live in LTC about their barriers in performing the physical activity. In 2007, WHO urged the researchers to conduct a study on the reasons of physical inactivity in older adults. This study was able to improve patient outcomes due to the fact that older people a re aware of the importance of keeping themselves active and having a meaningful, healthy ageing life. Review of the literature The author has reviewed the previous studies on the barriers of regular physical activity in the community living older people (Jones and Nies 1996, Conn 1998, Heesch et al 2003, Lin et.al 2007). But the review shows that little study was done among older adults living in LTC about the barriers they face in their physical activity. The areas of nursing practices are to identify the barriers in older people that keep them away from their physical activity. Developing a plan of care and interventions depend on the individual problems. Study Design Qualitative exploratory design is used in this study... ...here are barriers among older adults who stays in LTC centers .The barriers are Physical health problems and physical frailty, Fear of resultant injury or falling, past sedentary lifestyle, insufficient understanding about physical activity and environmental restrictions. Health care providers have a major role in influencing these older adults to take up a regular physical activity. This study suggests that health care providers need to intervene these barriers to develop and maintain physical activity. Also it is important to provide supportive surroundings. Change in behavior cannot occur in overnight, so ongoing physical activity practice is needed. For most of the older residents the LTC becomes the permanent homes, so the health care provider needs to develop a continuous relationship with these residents. These findings contributed to the nursing knowledge.

Biological Psychology Worksheet Essay

1. What is biological psychology? Biological psychology refers to the field of psychology in which the study of organism’s actions or behaviors along with inner processes such as; emotions, learning, perceptions, memory, and motivation is geared towards a biological standpoint. Biological psychology or biopsychology focuses on the scientific approaches of study on behavior (Pinel, 2009). When biopsychologists study behavior from the biological perspective, they look at aspects such as the nervous system; specifically the brain, along with genetics, physiology, and comparative method (McLeod, 2007). Biopsychologists are also referred to as neuroscientists for their contribution to research on behavior and the relation to the nervous system (Pinel, 2009). 2. What is the historical development of biological psychology? The historical development of biological psychology can be traced backed to ancient Greeks, but thought to be rebirthed during Renaissance. Credit of the scientific knowledge being resolved is giving to a French philosopher, Rene Descartes. He proposed that although the body and brain are separate units; the human mind influences and controls thought and behavior, as an explanation to actions of how and why humans behave (Pinel, 2009). Later in history; more specifically the 19th century modern biology was born when Charles Darwin provided supporting evidence and an explanation for the evolutionary theory. Darwin’s argument held that evolution takes place through natural selection (Pinel, 2009). The most recent history is the start of biopsychology in the 20th Century with credit of its emerge given to D.O. Hebb. His complete and profound accomplishment theory was the first to be developed. His theory examined how emotions, thoughts, perceptions, and memories may be influenced from brain activity. Although its history is considered an infant, it has since developed into a major and efficient contributing neuroscientific discipline (Pinel, 2009). 3. Name one to three important theorists associated with biological psychology. All three theorists above mentioned; Rene Descartes, Charles Darwin, and D.O. Hebb can be denoted as important and influential theorists associated with biological psychology. Because of Descartes’ contribution dated back to Renaissance, many still today are able to hold the assumption that human behaviors somehow does go beyond the human brain, and not just physical (Pinel, 2009). Charles Darwin’s contribution goes beyond just suggested notions and is a monumental theorist. His evolutionary theory and natural selection revelation has been truly ground breaking for the field of psychology in a biological approach. Not only did he suggest the theory; he was the first to produce evidence that species evolve, while also being the first in proposing how evolution happens as a result of natural selection (Pinel, 2009). Finally as mentioned, the brilliant and well-known theorist D.O. Hebb’s massive and extensive method to biopsychology has become a trademark to researc h (Pinel, 2009). 4. Describe the relationship between biological psychology and other fields in psychology and neuroscience. Biological psychology can be credited for its contributions not just to its own field of psychology, but also to other fields of psychology and neuroscience as well (Pinel, 2009). Some other fields of psychology that biological psychology is associated to and shares a connection to is comparative psychology and evolutionary psychology. The biological foundations of psychology study the factors of genetics, evolution, and the nervous system (Pinel, 2009). Biological psychology and neuroscience intertwine and in a way form a field of psychology known as biopsychology. Biopsychology is the association between psychological phenomenas and brain activity. Biopsychologists work to combine data and information from the other neuroscientific disciplines and then use it to the study of behavior (Pinel, 2009). 5. Describe the major underlying assumptions of a biopsychological approach. Major underlying assumptions of biopsychological approach focus on the relationship and connection of psychological phenomenas and brain activity. Assumptions of the approach include; how behavior is influenced by the nervous system, specifically the brain, genetics play a role in behavior, and that evolution may also be a factor (Pinel, 2009).

How to integrate computers into the curriculum Essay

Computer technology has become an integral part of every individual’s life. The advent of computers and their explosive use in practically every field has jolted the human race into what experts call the informational revolution (Veneris, 1984). In the current era, information ahs become so important and central to a business, it has occupied its true place as a resource rather than a by product of business operations. With the current society now headed towards what Drucker (n. d.) claims to be the next information revolution, it is only imperative that we train our future generations in this field like we do in any other subject that is considered to be vital by societal standards such as language, mathematics, general science etc. Being a fairly new field of study when compared to other courses of a curriculum, IT and such are constantly changing due to the technological leaps made everyday. A thing invented today becomes obsolete a month later. Skeptics argued that the technological bubble has burst; leaving in its wake many people broke who invested in dot com companies. This might be true but only to the extent where the boom in the jobs market is not as exponential as it used to be. If we look at the new products that come on market shelves every fifteen days or so, it will be proof enough for the fact that technology has never seen a better time than this before. And this creates problems when one tries to incorporate IT in school curricula. It becomes hard for schools to keep up with the ace of technology and many schools fail to fully equip their students with the skill set needed to compete effectively in the new world. Schools usually pose some questions regarding the matter such as: ? Can computer applications help improve student performance in basic skills and other key areas? ? For what specific skill areas, grade levels, and content areas are computer applications most effective? ? Which kinds and levels of students seem to profit most from using computers to learn? ? Which kinds of computer applications are most effective for which skill and content areas? ? Can computer applications improve students’ attitudes toward school, learning, and their abilities to learn? ? Will improved attitudes translate into better performance in school? These are in fact the key points that they should address and try to achieve the answers to when designing their course strategies. Guidelines to consider are: ? Grade and intellectual level of students ? Scope of subject ? Updating with external sources ? Type of instructor (industry experience or not) These are the most important factors that an institution should consider while designing the curriculum. The appropriate software too is important to compliment the overall course structure. The software to be used should be decided upon: ? User friendliness of software ? Degree of specialization ? Subject area (programming, multimedia etc. ) ? Skill level of students The hardware should be one that can support the requirement of the software. For example an application by Adobe such as the Adobe reader requires a minimum of a Pentium 2 but windows XP requires a minimum of a Pentium 3 processor to function. Hardware requirements are usually best when taken from the software vendor. One thing to note is that students should be exposed to as man types of hardware as they would come across in the corporate environment ranging from keyboards, printers to graphics tablets. References: Abernethy K. , T. Kevin, & Piegari G. Assessing the impact of the emerging discipline of information technology on computing curricula: some experiences.Journal of Computing Sciences in Colleges. Volume 22 Issue 2. Publisher: Consortium for Computing Sciences in Colleges. Dreher F. , Cummings M. , & Harris J. (2006). The role of IT policies in the CS/IS curricula. Journal of Computing Sciences in Colleges. Volume 22 Issue 2 Publisher: Consortium for Computing Sciences in Colleges Drucker P. (n. d. ). The Next Information Revolution. ASAP: E-Commerce. Retrieved January 26, 2007, from http://www. versaggi. net/ecommerce/articles/drucker-inforevolt. htm Veneris, Y (1984). The Informational Revolution, Cybernetics and Urban Modeling. PhD Thesis. University of Newcastle upon Tyne, UK. Zhu L. , & Tang C. (2006). A module-based integration of information retrieval into undergraduate curricula. Journal of Computing Sciences in Colleges, Volume 22 Issue 2 Publisher: Consortium for Computing Sciences in Colleges.